From Rome to Romania: A History of Romance

What does a Parisian ordering a café au lait have in common with a Brazilian dancing samba, a Spaniard enjoying tapas, or a Romanian exploring a medieval castle? More than you might think. They are all speaking a modern dialect of Latin. Their languages, along with Italian, Catalan, Galician, and others, belong to the Romance family—a group of tongues that share a single, powerful ancestor: the language of the Roman Empire.

But how did the gritty, everyday speech of soldiers and colonists conquer the world, long after the empire itself had crumbled to dust? This is the 2,000-year story of linguistic evolution, a journey from the cobblestones of Rome to the far corners of the globe.

The Language of an Empire: Not Your Textbook Latin

When we think of Latin, we often picture the eloquent prose of Cicero or the epic poetry of Virgil. This was Classical Latin, the highly formalized, literary standard of the Roman elite. But this isn’t the language that gave birth to French or Spanish. The true parent of the Romance languages was Sermo Vulgaris, or Vulgar Latin.

Vulgar Latin was the language of the people: the soldiers, the merchants, the farmers, and the administrators who spread across the vast Roman Empire. It was simpler, more dynamic, and varied from region to region. This linguistic split is the first crucial step in our story. For example, a Roman orator would use the word equus for “horse”, but a soldier would likely have used caballus (originally meaning “nag” or “workhorse”). It’s no surprise, then, that the modern Romance words for horse—Spanish caballo, French cheval, Italian cavallo, and Portuguese cavalo—all descend from the common soldier’s term, not the poet’s.

Similarly, the Classical verb for “to eat” was edere, but the colloquial term was manducare, meaning “to chew.” This is the root of the French manger and the Italian mangiare. The language of the streets, not the senate, was the seed of Romance.

The Cracks Appear: The Fall of Rome and Linguistic Divergence

For centuries, the Roman Empire provided a powerful, unifying political and cultural force. This centralization helped maintain a degree of uniformity in spoken Latin across Europe. But when the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century AD, this network shattered.

Political fragmentation led to linguistic fragmentation. Regions that were once connected by Roman roads and administration became isolated kingdoms. Without a central authority, the Vulgar Latin spoken in Hispania began to evolve differently from that spoken in Gaul or on the Italian peninsula.

Two major forces accelerated this divergence:

• Substrate Influence: These were the languages spoken by peoples before the Romans arrived. In Gaul, the Celtic language of the Gauls left its mark on French phonology and vocabulary. In Hispania, pre-Roman Iberian and Celtic languages did the same for Spanish and Portuguese.
• Superstrate Influence: These were the languages of the new rulers who conquered Roman territories. Germanic tribes like the Franks (in France), the Visigoths (in Spain), and the Lombards (in Italy) introduced a wealth of new vocabulary, especially related to warfare and governance. The French word for war, guerre, comes from the Germanic werra, completely replacing the Latin bellum.

From Dialects to Languages: The Birth of Romance

By the 9th century, the regional dialects of Vulgar Latin had become so different from one another, and from their Latin parent, that they were essentially new languages. A pivotal moment in this recognition is the Oaths of Strasbourg in 842 AD. In these oaths, the kings Charles the Bald and Louis the German pledged allegiance to each other. Louis’s oath was recorded in a form of Old High German, while Charles’s was recorded in a Romance language—an early form of Old French. It was the first major text written in a language that was explicitly not Latin, but a descendant of it.

From this crucible of change, the major Romance languages emerged:

• Ibero-Romance: Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician
• Gallo-Romance: French, Occitan, Franco-Provençal
• Italo-Romance: Italian (and its many dialects), Sicilian
• Balkano-Romance: Romanian, isolated by Slavic-speaking populations but a clear descendant of the Latin spoken in the Roman province of Dacia.

You can still see the family resemblance clearly. Consider the Latin word for “water”, aqua. In Italian it’s acqua, in Spanish it’s agua, in Portuguese it’s água. French took a more winding path to become eau, while Romanian, on the eastern frontier, simplified it to apă. The DNA is unmistakable.

Crossing Oceans: The Age of Exploration

For a thousand years, the Romance languages were a largely European phenomenon. That all changed in the 15th century. As the maritime powers of Portugal, Spain, and later France, built vast colonial empires, they carried their languages with them.

Spanish became the dominant tongue of Central and South America (with the major exception of Brazil) and the Philippines. Portuguese spread to Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, and parts of Asia. French established itself in Quebec, the Caribbean, and vast swathes of West and Central Africa. This explosive growth is why today, nearly one billion people speak a Romance language as their native or second tongue. The legacy of Rome’s legions was being spread not by the sword, but by the sails of explorers’ ships.

A Living Legacy

The journey from Vulgar Latin to the global Romance family is a powerful testament to how language lives, breathes, and adapts. It’s a story of empires rising and falling, of peoples migrating and mixing, and of the slow, unstoppable transformation of words over millennia.

So the next time you hear Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, or Romanian, listen closely. You might just hear the faint echo of a Roman soldier on a dusty road, a merchant haggling in a bustling forum, and the enduring voice of an empire that never truly fell silent.